Rabu, 12 Desember 2012

The main rtikel: Gautama Buddha


The main rtikel: Gautama Buddha

According to Buddhist tradition, a historical figure born Buddha Siddhartha Gautama of the Sakya clan at the beginning of Magadha (546-324 BC), in a town, south of the Himalayas called Lumbini. Now the city is located in south Nepal. He is also known as Sakyamuni (literally: the sage of the Sakya ").

After his early life full of luxury under the protection of his father, the king of Kapilavastu (later incorporated into the kingdom of Magadha), Siddharta see the reality of everyday life and draw the conclusion that real life is essentially unavoidable misery. Siddhartha then left the life of luxury that means nothing and became a hermit. Then he argues that there was also no means ascetic, and then find the middle way (majhima patipada). The middle way is a compromise between a life of debauchery is too satisfying desires and ascetic life is too torture yourself.

Under a Bodhi tree, he vowed would never leave his position until he found Truth. At age 35, he attained Enlightenment. At that time he was known as Gautama Buddha, or simply "The Buddha" only, a Sanskrit word that means "he who is aware" (from the word Budh + ta).

For the next 45 years, he traces the Gangetic plains in central India (the flow of the river Ganga and its tributaries), as he spread his message to a number of different people.

Buddha's reluctance to appoint a successor or formalize his doctrine resulted in many streams within the next 400 years: first of all streams Nikaya Buddhist sects, which now only remaining Theravada, Mahayana sect and later formation, a pan-Buddhist movement that is based on acceptance of new books.
[Edit] The early stages of Buddhism

Before distributed under the protection of the emperor Asoka in the 3rd century BC, Buddhism seems only a minor phenomenon, and historical events that form of religion is not much recorded. Two council (general assembly) formation is said to have occurred, although our knowledge is based on the records of a later date. Councils (also called grand pasamuhan) is trying to discuss the formalization of Buddhist doctrines, and some divisions within Buddhist movement.
[Edit] First Buddhist Council (the 5th century BC)

The first Buddhist Council was held shortly after the Buddha died under royal protection Ajatasattu of Magadha Empire, and headed by a monk named Mahakassapa, at Rajagaha (now called Rajgir). The purpose of this council is to establish quotations Buddha (Sutta (Buddha)) and codify monastic law (vinaya): Ananda, one of the main disciples of Buddha and his cousin, was invited to meresitasikan Buddhist teachings, and Upali, a student other laws meresitasikan vinaya. This then became the basis of the Pali Canon, which has become a basic reference text in the whole period of the history of Buddhism.
[Edit] Council of the Second Buddha (383 BC)

The second Buddhist Council was held by the king Kalasoka in Vaisali, following conflicts between traditionalist sects and movements are more liberal, and call themselves the Mahasanghika.

Traditional schools of Buddhism was considered an ordinary man who achieved enlightenment, which can also be achieved by the monks who follow the rules of monastic and practice Buddhism in order to overcome samsara and achieve Arhat. But the Mahasanghika who want to separate themselves, consider this too individualistic and selfish. They assume that the aim of becoming an arhat is not enough, and declared that the true goal is to achieve the status of the Buddha are, in a sense paved the way Mahayana understand that later emerged. They are a supporter of the monastic rule is more lax and more appealing to the majority of the clergy and the laity (that's why their name means a collection of "big" or "majority").

Council ended with the rejection of the teachings of the Mahasanghika. They left the courtroom and lasted for several centuries in the northwestern Indian and Central Asia according to inscriptions found near the Oxus Kharoshti and bertarikh first century.

See also: the early schools of Buddhism
[Edit] Propagation Asoka (+ / - 260 BC)
Kapital (shoots pillar) a pillar that was founded by emperor Asoka at Sarnath + / - 250 BC.

Maharaja Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire (273-232 BCE) converted to Buddhism after the Kalinga conquered territory (now Orissa) in eastern India is bloody. Because regretted his actions were despicable, the emperor was then decided to abandon violence and spread the teachings of Buddha by building stupas and pillars in which he called for respect for all living things and getting people to adhere to Dharma. Ashoka also built roads and hospitals-hospitals across the country.

This period marks the spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the inscriptions and pillars left by Ashoka (Asoka Edicts), messengers sent to different countries to spread Buddhism, as far as Greek kingdoms in the west and especially in the Greco-Bactrian kingdom which is the neighboring area. Most likely they well up in the Mediterranean according to the inscriptions of Asoka.


[Edit] Third Buddhist Council (+ / - 250 BC)

Asoka Maharaja initiated the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE at Pataliputra (now Patna). The Council is led by the monks Moggaliputta. Purpose of the council is a reconciliation of Buddhist schools of different, purify Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions are interested in the protection of royalty and freight organizations Buddhist missionaries to the known world.

Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, and literally means "Three Basket"), which contains a reference texts traditionally Buddhist and considered to be derived directly from the Buddha, was launched at that time. Tipitaka consists of doctrine (Sutra Pitaka), the monastic rules (Vinaya Pitaka) and supplemented by the collection of philosophy (Abhidharma Pitaka).

Attempts to purify Buddhism Asoka also lead to the exclusion of other movements emerged. Especially, after the year 250 BC, the Sarvastidin (which had rejected the third council, according to Theravada tradition) and the Dharmaguptaka became influential in northwestern India and Central Asia, until the Kushan Empire in the first centuries AD. The followers Dharmaguptaka characterized by their belief that the Buddha is above and apart from other Buddhist community members. While the Sarvastivadin believe that the past, present and future occur at the same time.
[Edit] Hellenistic World

Some charter Asoka inscriptions written about the efforts that have been implemented by Asoka to promote Buddhism in the Hellenistic world (Greece), which was then continued without interruption from India to Greece. Edicts of Asoka shows deep understanding of the political system in the Hellenistic territories: the place and the location of important Greek kings mentioned, and they are referred to as the recipient of Buddhist preaching: Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid Empire (261-246 BCE), Ptolemy Filadelfos II of Egypt (285-247 BC), Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276-239 BC), Magas of Cyrene (288-258 BC), and Alexander of Epirus (272-255 BC).
Propagation of Buddhism during the reign of emperor Ashoka (260-218 BC).

    "The conquest by Dharma has been carried out successfully, the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (6400 kilometers) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander reign, and also in the south among the Chola, Pandya, and as far as Tamraparni. " (Asoka Charter, Charter Stone to-13, S. Dhammika)

Then, according to several sources in the Pali language, some delegates monk-monk Ashoka is Greece, which shows the close religious exchanges between the two cultures:

    "When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, lightening the religion of the Conqueror (Ashoka) has completed Council (3rd) [...], he sent thera-thera, who was the other one to it: [...] and to Aparantaka ( western countries usually refers Gujarat and Sindhu), he sent a Greek (Yona) named Dhammarakkhita ". (Mahavamsa XII).

It is not clear to what extent this interaction effect, but some experts say that to some extent there is a syncretism between Greek philosophy and Buddhism in Hellenic lands at that time. They mainly show the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world at that time, especially in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria), and the presence of a monastic order pre-Christian named Therapeutae (possibly derived from the Pali word "Theraputta"), which may "take inspiration from the teachings and application-contemplation Buddhist asceticism "(Robert Lissen).


Starting from the year 100 BC, the symbol "star in the crown", also alternatively called "chakras berruji eight" and probably influenced the design Dharmacakra Buddha, began appearing on coins Jewish king, King Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BC). Alexander Jannaeus associated with Greek philosophical sect, the Sadducees and the Essenes monastic order, which is the forerunner of Christianity. The depiction of the eight chakras or wheels berruji was continued by his widow, Queen Alexandra, until the Romans invaded Judea in 63 BC.

Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic era were also found in the city of Alexandria, with ornate Dharmacakra (Tarn, "The Greeks in Bactria and India"). In a comment on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, some experts stated that "Later on this place a few centers of Christianity's most active established" (Robert Linssen "Zen living").

The large-scale,


The large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Ransom Olds in 1902 at his Oldsmobile factory located in Lansing, Michigan and based upon the assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills, England in 1802. The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the U.S. by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts.[21] This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1914.
As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in fifteen minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold (requiring 12.5-man-hours before, 1-hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.[22] It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Ducolacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black".[22] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.[22]
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Henry_ford_1919.jpg/170px-Henry_ford_1919.jpg
http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png
Portrait of Henry Ford (ca. 1919)
Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism," and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.
In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.[22]
Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.
Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, so buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved.
Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson, Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.[22]
In Europe much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practise of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41% of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra had gone under. Citroen did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CV and Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete.[22] Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Russelsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5% of the market.[22]

The iPad has


The iPad has two internal speakers reproducing left and right channel audio located on the bottom-right of the unit. In the original iPad, the speakers push sound through two small sealed channels leading to the three audio ports carved into the device,[11] while the iPad 2 has its speakers behind a single grill.[9] A volume switch is on the right side of the unit. A 3.5-mm TRRS connector audio-out jack on the top-left corner of the device provides stereo sound for headphones with or without microphones and/or volume controls. The iPad also contains a microphone that can be used for voice recording.
The built-in Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR interface allows wireless headphones and keyboards to be used with the iPad.[62] However iOS does not currently support file transfer via Bluetooth.[63]iPad also features 1024×768 VGA video output for limited applications,[64] screen capture,[65] connecting an external display or television through an accessory adapter.

The interface is


The interface is based around the home screen, a graphical list of available applications. The home screen can be accessed at any time by a hardware button below the screen, closing an open application in the process.[93]
Users can also add and delete icons from the dock, which is the same on every home screen. Each home screen holds up to sixteen icons, and the dock holds up to four icons. Users can delete Web Clips and third-party applications at any time, and may select only certain applications for transfer from iTunes. Apple's default programs, however, may not be removed.
Almost all input is given through the touch screen, which understands complex gestures using multi-touch. The iPad'sinteraction techniques enable the user to move the content up or down by a touch-drag motion of the finger. For example, zooming in and out of web pages and photos is done by placing two fingers on the screen and spreading them farther apart or bringing them closer together, a gesture known as "pinching".
Scrolling through a long list or menu is achieved by sliding a finger over the display from bottom to top, or vice versa to go back. In either case, the list moves as if it is pasted on the outer surface of a wheel, slowly decelerating as if affected by friction. In this way, the interface simulates the physics of a real object.
Other user-centeredinteractive effects include horizontally sliding sub-selection, the vertically sliding keyboard and bookmarks menu, and widgets that turn around to allow settings to be configured on the other side. Menu bars are found at the top and bottom of the screen when necessary. Their options vary by program, but always follow a consistent style motif. In menu hierarchies, a "back" button in the top-left corner of the screen displays the name of the parent folder.

The 2006–2007 season


The 2006–2007 season proved to be the breakout year for Ronaldo, as he broke the 20 goal barrier for the first time and picked up his first league title with Manchester United.
In November and December 2006, Ronaldo received consecutive Barclays Player of the Monthhonours, becoming only the third player in Premier League history to do so after Dennis Bergkamp in 1997 and Robbie Fowler in 1996.[30][31] He scored his 50th Manchester United goal against city rivals Manchester City on 5 May 2007 as United claimed their first Premier League title in four years, and he was voted into his second consecutive FIFPro Special Young Player of the Year award at the end of the year.
Despite rumours circulating in March 2007 that Real Madrid were willing to pay an unprecedented €80 million (£54 million) for Ronaldo,[32] he signed a five-year, £120,000-a-week (£31 million total) extension with United on 13 April, making him the highest-paid player in team history.[33][34]
Ronaldo amassed a host of personal awards for the season. He won the PFA Players' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards, joining Andy Gray (in 1977) as the only players to receive this honour.[35] In April, he completed the treble by winning the PFA Fans' Player of the Year. He also won the PFA Fans' Player of the Year and the FWA Footballer of the Year, becoming the first player to win all four main PFA and FWA awards. Ronaldo was also one of eight Manchester United players named in the 2006–07 PFA Premier League Team of the Year.